In JavaScript, as in most other languages, code can be divided in to modular blocks called functions. Once defined, these can be called from other code. Data can be passed in the form of parameters and functions can return data back to the calling code.
Open the maths.js file. Notice that this contains several functions. Each is called directly under its definition.
Lets start with a simple example.
function largestNumber(a, b) {
if (a > b) return a
if (b > a) return b
return null
}
const biggest = largestNumber(5, 8)- The function is declared using the
functionkeyword and the function is given a name which must be a valid variable name. a. If the name comprises more than one word these should be written using camel casing as shown above. This is known as a Function Declaration - The function above takes two parameters,
aandb.- These are variables with local scope (they can't ba accessed outside the function)
- When the function is called, you need to pass two values which get assigned to the two parameters.
- If you pass too many values the extra ones get ignored.
- If you don't pass enough values the remainder are assigned a value of
null.Nullis an assignment value (means a value of no value).
- The function returns a value.
a. If the numbers are not the same it returns the largest.
b. If they are the same it returns
null.
Start by running the maths.js script and map the output it generates against the console.log statements in the script.
- Create a new function called
multiply()that takes two parameters,aandband returns the product of the two.- what happens if you call it with only a single parameter?
- Modify the function so it uses a default parameter to multiply by 1 if the second parameter is missing.
- What happens if you don't supply any parameters?
- Add a second default parameter to prevent this.
- Write an arrow function expression stored in a constant called
squareRootwhich calculates and returns the square root of the supplied number. You will need to use thesqrt()method which is part of theMathobject.
Open the contact.js script, implement the validateEmail() function and thoroughly test it, you should avoid using regular expressions at this stage:
- Check that the string is at least 5 character long
- Check that there is a
@character and that it is not at the start of the string (HINT: use the indexOf String prototype method. - Check that there is a period (.) character after the
@character but before the end of the string.
Functions are a data type in JavaScript (they are objects but more on that in the next chapter). As such they can be stored in variables for later execution. Prior to ECMA6 they were declared using the function keyword like this:
const remainder = function(dividend, divisor) {
const quotient = Math.floor(dividend / divisor)
return dividend - quotient
}This is known as storing a function expression in a variable (or just a Function Expression for short).
To execute the function you simply reference the variable and append ().
const rem = remainder(8, 5)ECMA6 introduced a better way to handle function expressions, called an arrow function expression. This has a much shorter (and cleaner) syntax. Here is the same function expression written using this new syntax, make a careful note of the differences.
const remainder2 = (dividend, divisor) => {
const quotient = Math.floor(dividend / divisor)
return dividend - quotient
}The arrow function expression has a number of important features:
- It does not have its own function scope which means it does not bind its own
thisobject (made clearer later). - In a concise body (one line) it has an implicit return and you don't need to use block braces. This results in very concise code, see the example below).
- If there is only a single parameter the parameter brackets can be omitted.
Here is an example that should make points 2 and 3 clearer.
const sqr = num => num * num- Refactor the
remainder2function expression to take advantage of the implicit return (you will need to reduce it to a single line of code). - Compare this to the original version: which is more readable?
- Create a function expression that takes two string parameters and returns the longest string and assign this to a constant called `longest. check this works correctly.
- Modify the function expression so that it can handle any number of string parameters (use a rest parameter).
- Can you reduce this function expression to a single line (hint: explore using the reduce function combined with the ternary operator)?
Since JavaScript supports first class functions, we can use a function in any place where we could use a literal, object or variable. Open the currency.js script and look at line 17. As you can see the request object has a key called get that stores a function (we have already covered this). This takes two parameters:
- A string representing the url to be accessed.
- A function that will be called once the data has been retrived from the url. This was defined earlier in the script and takes 3 parameters.
request.get(url, printRates)This is a common construct used in JavaScript/NodeJS. The second function parameter is known as a callback.
NodeJS is a single-threaded event loop that processes queued events. This means that if you were to execute a long-running task within a single thread then the process would block. To solve this problem, NodeJS relies on callbacks, which are functions that run after a long-running process has finished. Instead of waiting for the task to finish, the event loop moves on to the next piece of code. When the long-running task has finished, the callback is added to the event loop and run.
Because callbacks are such a fundamental part of NodeJS you need to spend time to make sure you fully understand how they work.
Although this code works, you will rarely see callbacks written in this manner. Creating a function literal is a bit clunky and we can clean up the code by simply passing an anonymous function.
request.get( url, (err, res, body) => {
// callback code goes here.
})Take a few moments to make sure you fully understand the syntax, you will be seeing a lot of this over the next few weeks.
TODO
Lets start by creating an manipulating objects using object literals. Open the employee.js file, read through it and see if you can work out what it does. Now run it to see if you were correct.
The simplest way to create new objects is by creating an object literal which is defining an object and storing it in a variable in a similar way to how we created function literals earlier in the lab. You should open the employee.js file which contains the code.
const employee = {
firstName: 'Colin',
'last name': 'Stephen'
}As you can see from the simple example above, the data is stored in name-value pairs, referred to as Properties. This example is defining an object with 2 properties.
The name part of each property is a JavaScript string which may be enclosed in single quotes. These quotes are optional if the property name is a valid JavaScript variable but they are required if this is not the case.
In the example above, firstName is a valid JavaScript variable but last name is not because it contains a space which is not allowed in variable names.
It is also possible to create an empty object (we can add properties later). This is done by assigning empty curly braces.
const emptyObject = {}Here are some valid property names. Notice that both age and 'age' are valid.
age
'first name'
'age'
The property names below are not valid because they are not a valid JavaScript variable names.
first name
firstName!
first-name
- Add a property called
genderand assign a suitable String value. - Add a new property called
date of birththat stores the year the person was born and assign a suitable value.
Whilst it is possible (and useful) to log an entire object to the console, normally we would want to retrieve the values of specific properties, this is known as destructuring an object.
const employee = {
firstName: 'Colin',
'last name': 'Stephen',
'department': 'Computing'
}
console.log(employee)
const firstName = employee.firstName
const lastName = employee['last name']
const grade = employee.gradePassing the object name to console.log() will print out the string representation of the object. To retrieve a specific property value there are two options. If the name is a legal JS variable name the dot . notation can be used. This is used to log the firstName property in the example above.
If the name is not a valid JavaScript variable name we need to turn it into a string by using quotes '' and enclose it in square braces []. This is used to log the last name property.
The grade variable will be undefined because employee.grade does not exist. If you want to avoid this and assign a default value if the property is missing you can use the OR operator ||.
const grade = employee.grade || 'A'This will retrieve the value of the grade property if defined and store it in the const variable. If this property is missing the const variable will contain the string 'A'.
Lets apply our knowledge of callbacks to implement a simple quotes tool.
- Create a json-formatted text file called
quotes.jsoncontaining 10 quotes, you can find lots of these on websites such as brainyquotes. Each quote should include the quote and the author. - Create a new script called
quotes.jsand use thefs.readfile()function to read the contents of the file and display it in the terminal. - The contents of the file is a utf8 string, use
JSON.parse()to convert this into a JavaScript object (array) and print this to the terminal instead. - Create a loop to iterate through the array, printing the contents of each index.
- Modify the code so that it only prints the quotes string (not the entire object).
In ECMA6 is is possible to extract multiple pieces of data into separate variables by destructuring using an object pattern. This is syntactically similar to creating object literals (see the example below).
const employee = {
firstName: 'Colin',
'last name': 'Stephen',
'department': 'Computing'
}
let {firstName: first, 'last name': last, department: dept} = employee
console.log(first) // prints 'Colin'
console.log(dept) // prints 'Computing'Most object properties are simple values and you can simply assign a value. Sometimes however properties need to be calculated. One solution is to store a function as one of the properties however we would need to call a function to retrieve the value:
const employee = {
firstName: 'Colin',
'last name': 'Stephen',
getName: () => `${this.firstName} ${this['last name']}`
}
const name = employee.getName()Whilst this works fine it looks a little clunky. Thankfully in the newer versions of JavaScript you can use a getter which makes the code far more intuitive.
const employee = {
firstName: 'Colin',
'last name': 'Stephen',
get name() {
return `${this.firstName} ${this['last name']}`
}
}
const name = employee.nameIn the same manner, some properties when set may need to change other properties. Here is a solution using a stored function.
const employee = {
firstName: 'Colin',
'last name': 'Stephen',
setName: function(fullname) {
const words = fullname.toString().split(' ')
this.firstName = words[0] || ''
this['last name'] = words[1] || ''
}
}
employee.setName('Micky Mouse')By using a setter, it behaves just like any other property.
const employee = {
firstName: 'Colin',
'last name': 'Stephen',
set name(fullname) {
const words = fullname.toString().split(' ')
this.firstName = words[0] || ''
this['last name'] = words[1] || ''
}
}
employee.name = 'Micky Mouse'- Print the person's details in an easy to understand sentence.
- Add a getter to return the number of years the employee has been working for the company, you will need to round this down to a whole number. You should make use of one of the static methods of the built-in Math object.
Once an object has been created it can be modified in several ways.
- More object values can be added
- Object names can be deleted
- The values can be changed for existing names.
Once an object has been created, additional properties cane be added by setting values by assignment.
const employee = {
firstName: 'Colin',
'last name': 'Stephen',
'department': 'Computing'
}
employee.grade = 4
employee['currently employed'] = true
employee.department = 'Computer Science'This sets a new value if the name does not already exist. Otherwise, it updates the existing value. Notice that the syntax depends on whether the property name is a valid JavaScript object and matches the syntax used to retrieve a property.
Properties can be removed from an object literal using the delete operator. This removes the entire property (name and value).
const employee = {
firstName: 'Colin',
'last name': 'Stephen',
'department': 'Computing'
}
delete employee.departmentUndefined Objects
If you try to retrieve a value from an object that is undefined, JS throws a TypeError exception:
const nonExistentObject.postCode // throws "TypeError"
const addressObject = employee.address // returns undefined
const postCode = employee.address.postCode // throws "TypeError"To see what a typeError looks like, try uncommenting the three lines at the end of the employee.js file. So how can we avoid this?
The AND operator && can be used to guard against this problem.
const postCode = employee.address && employee.address.postCode
console.log(postCode) // returns undefined- Modify the code to handle bad data:
- Remove the startYear property.
- Set the startYear property to a String.
All JavaScript object (such as String, Number, Array, etc.) inherit properties and methods from a prototype. This also applies to any new objects you create. Since JavaScript does not support traditional classes, this becomes the way to add new functionality. Let's look at a simple example.
The String object does not have a way to convert a string into an array of characters so we will add this. After it is added we can see that all strings have this new behaviour.
String.prototype.toArray = function() {
const strArr = this.split('')
return strArr
}
const nameArray = 'John Doe'.toArray()
console.log(nameArray)There are a couple of important concepts here.
- Notice that the function is not defined using the arrow syntax
=>, this is because we need the function to have its own context, this does not happen with arrow functions. - Inside the function we manipulate the
thisobject which represents the value of the object.- Replace the
function() {}construct with an arrow function. What happens when you run the script?
- Replace the
- Extend the
Arrayobject by adding a functiontoStr()that takes an array and turns it into a string. You will need to use theArray.join()function.
As you have seen from the previous section, each object (String, Number, etc) has its own prototype, but what about the custom objects you created? It turns out that these also have a prototype, Object. Any functionality you add to this will get added to all the objects in your application!. To get round this problem NodeJS has the new keyword. When this is used we can isolate any changes to the targeted object. Specifically when we use the new keyword.
Until ECMA6, there wa a way to achieve this by using a constructor function. Whilst this is not now considered the optimal way to achieve our goal there are so many examples of this approach it is important you understand both the syntax and how it works. When we use this approach using the new keyword triggers four steps:
- We create an empty object.
- We set the its prototype property to the constructor function's prototype function.
- We bind its
thisobject to the new object. - We then return the new object.
Lets see an example:
function Person(name, startYear) {
const currentYear = 2019
this.name = name
this.startYear = startYear || currentYear
this.years = currentYear - this.startYear
}
const colin = new Person('colin', 2012)
console.log(colin)
// Person { name: 'colin', startYear: 2012, years: 7 }
const nigel = new Person('nigel')
console.log(nigel)
// Person { name: 'nigel', startYear: 2019, years: 0 }Note that it is a convention that objects that can be used to create objects using the new keyword start with a capital letter.
Whilst this syntax is not using traditional classes, one object can extend another. This is best illustrated through the example below where we create another object called Student.
function Student(name, startYear, course) {
Person.call(this, name, startYear)
this.subject = course || 'not enrolled'
}
const emily = new Student('emily', 2017, 'architecture')
console.log(emily)
// Student { name: 'emily', startYear: 2017, years: 2, course: 'architecture' }
const anne = new Student('anne')
console.log(anne)
// Student { name: 'anne', startYear: 2019, years: 0, course: 'not enrolled' }Whilst constructor functions are not particularly elegant they do provide a way to structure your objects efficiently. ECMA6 introduced a cleaner way to work with these using classes. Note that despite this looking like a (traditional) OOP language, remember it is really only a different syntax for constructor functions. Let's look at the previous example using the new syntax:
class Person {
const currentYear = 2019
constructor(name, startYear) {
this.name = name
this.startYear = startYear || currentYear
this.years = currentYear - this.startYear
}
}Since this is syntactic sugar for the constructor function we can extend this to create different objects.
class Student extends Person {
constructor(name, startYear, course) {
super(name, startYear)
this.subject = course || 'not enrolled'
}
}Note that we use the constructor() function rather than calling the base object.
We can also make use of getters and setters to retrieve and modify object properties.
class Student extends Person {
constructor(name, startYear, course) {
super(name, startYear)
this.subject = course || 'not enrolled'
}
get course() {
return this.subject
}
set course(newCourse) {
this.subject = newCourse
}
}Currently each instance of a prototype function is completely self-contained. What if we need to store data about the prototype function itself? In a traditional OOP language we would use static methods and the new ECMA class syntax allows us to do something similar by adding properties to the prototype function itself. We can also define static methods that can be called directly from the prototype function, see the example below.
class Student {
constructor(name, startYear, course) {
super(name, startYear)
this.subject = course || 'not enrolled'
if(ECMA6Student.count === undefined) ECMA6Student.count = 0
ECMA6Student.count++
}
static studentCount() {
return ECMA6Student.count
}
}
const ruth = new ECMA6Student('ruth')
console.log(ECMA6Student.count) // prints '1'
const matt = new ECMA6Student('matt')
console.log(ECMA6Student.studentCount()) // prints '2'Notice that the static vsriable count is public (so the studentCount() method is somewhat superfluous in this example!). This highlights one of the limitations of JavaScript, the lack of a simple way to define private attributes (variables and methods). The next section goes into this in more detail and explains some workarounds (hacks) to get around this.
In all of these objects all data is public (you can see the entire object by using console.log()). One of the weaknesses of NodeJS (and JavaScript in general) is that there is no clean way to encapsulate data and make it hidden from the outside world. There are a number of techniques to get around this problem:
- Storing the data in the class constructor environment.
- Using a naming convention such as starting all private data with an underscore.
- Storing data in a WeakMap.
- Use a property who's key is a Symbol.
You should take time to understand the pros and cons of all four approaches.
- Create a constructor function called
OldVehiclethat includesmake,modelandpriceinformation. Use this to create two vehicles of your choice. - Use this to create a second constructor function class called
OldPickupthat includespayloadandseatsfields and use this to create two pickup objects. - Now use the same information to create a class called
NewVehicleand extend this to create a class calledNewPickupand use this to create two or more pickup objects. - Add a static member to capture the total value of all the pickup sales and print this to the terminal.
//TODO: write this section...!
Show how objects can be turned into strings and saved. text data loaded and converted into a JavaScript object.
Show how data can be retrieved from an API in JSON format.
//TODO: use the OMDB API in this section
OMDB key: 220d2590
First task is for students to get an OMDB API key and paste it into the provided script.
Use the same API and show that multiple steps cause nested callbacks and callback hell.
//TODO: use the OMDB API in this section.
Find films released in year X starring Y in genre Z from producer A, etc. country B.
Because the code to be run after a callback is run needs to be inside the callback code it is very challenging to build a script that contains several long-running tasks you get into a situation where you nest callbacks inside callbacks (inside callbacks) which makes the code very difficult to write, debug and read and means its very difficult to split into separate functions, a situation commonly known as Callback Hell.
Open the file nestedCallbacks.js which asks for a base currency code then prints out all the exchange rates against other currencies. Notice that there are four functions defined, three of which include a callback. Our script is designed to capture user input using stdin (needing a callback), identify whether a currency code is valid (requiring a second callback) and then getting the currency conversion rates for the specified currency (requiring a third callback).
- Notice that the
checkValidCurrencyCode()function is called by the callback for thegetInput()function and thegetData()function is called by the callback for thecheckValidCurrencyCode()function. - Each callback takes two parameters as normal. The first contains the error (if any) and this needs to be handled in each callback.
- The data from the first callback is needed when calling the third function so needs to be stored in an immutable variable (constant).
- The fourth, and final, function does not have a callback.
Callbacks are the simplest possible mechanism for asynchronous code in JavaScript. Unfortunately, raw callbacks sacrifice the control flow, exception handling, and function semantics familiar from synchronous code.
The callbacks are already nested 3 deep. To test your knowledge of deeply nested callbacks you are going to create a script that has 6 levels of nested callbacks!
- modify the script to ask for the currency to convert to and display only the one conversion rate.
- instead of printing the exchange rate, ask for the amount to be converted and them return the equivalent in the chosen currency
- use the OpenExchangeRates API to display the full name of the chosen currency.
Even though the script is still simple you are probably already getting in a tangle! Imagine a more complex script with conditions, it would quickly get out of hand and become practically impossible to debug.